diff --git a/cmd/evm/internal/t8ntool/execution.go b/cmd/evm/internal/t8ntool/execution.go
index 1979a8226e..b3fb79bc4a 100644
--- a/cmd/evm/internal/t8ntool/execution.go
+++ b/cmd/evm/internal/t8ntool/execution.go
@@ -149,15 +149,13 @@ func (pre *Prestate) Apply(vmConfig vm.Config, chainConfig *params.ChainConfig,
 		isEIP4762   = chainConfig.IsVerkle(big.NewInt(int64(pre.Env.Number)), pre.Env.Timestamp)
 		statedb     = MakePreState(rawdb.NewMemoryDatabase(), pre.Pre, isEIP4762)
 		signer      = types.MakeSigner(chainConfig, new(big.Int).SetUint64(pre.Env.Number), pre.Env.Timestamp)
-		gaspool     = new(core.GasPool)
+		gaspool     = core.NewGasPool(pre.Env.GasLimit)
 		blockHash   = common.Hash{0x13, 0x37}
 		rejectedTxs []*rejectedTx
 		includedTxs types.Transactions
-		gasUsed     = uint64(0)
 		blobGasUsed = uint64(0)
 		receipts    = make(types.Receipts, 0)
 	)
-	gaspool.AddGas(pre.Env.GasLimit)
 	vmContext := vm.BlockContext{
 		CanTransfer: core.CanTransfer,
 		Transfer:    core.Transfer,
@@ -258,14 +256,14 @@ func (pre *Prestate) Apply(vmConfig vm.Config, chainConfig *params.ChainConfig,
 		statedb.SetTxContext(tx.Hash(), len(receipts))
 		var (
 			snapshot = statedb.Snapshot()
-			prevGas  = gaspool.Gas()
+			gp       = gaspool.Snapshot()
 		)
-		receipt, err := core.ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg, gaspool, statedb, vmContext.BlockNumber, blockHash, pre.Env.Timestamp, tx, &gasUsed, evm)
+		receipt, err := core.ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg, gaspool, statedb, vmContext.BlockNumber, blockHash, pre.Env.Timestamp, tx, evm)
 		if err != nil {
 			statedb.RevertToSnapshot(snapshot)
 			log.Info("rejected tx", "index", i, "hash", tx.Hash(), "from", msg.From, "error", err)
 			rejectedTxs = append(rejectedTxs, &rejectedTx{i, err.Error()})
-			gaspool.SetGas(prevGas)
+			gaspool.Set(gp)
 			continue
 		}
 		if receipt.Logs == nil {
@@ -352,7 +350,7 @@ func (pre *Prestate) Apply(vmConfig vm.Config, chainConfig *params.ChainConfig,
 		Receipts:    receipts,
 		Rejected:    rejectedTxs,
 		Difficulty:  (*math.HexOrDecimal256)(vmContext.Difficulty),
-		GasUsed:     (math.HexOrDecimal64)(gasUsed),
+		GasUsed:     (math.HexOrDecimal64)(gaspool.Used()),
 		BaseFee:     (*math.HexOrDecimal256)(vmContext.BaseFee),
 	}
 	if pre.Env.Withdrawals != nil {
diff --git a/core/chain_makers.go b/core/chain_makers.go
index 7ce86b14e9..5264336aaa 100644
--- a/core/chain_makers.go
+++ b/core/chain_makers.go
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ func (b *BlockGen) SetCoinbase(addr common.Address) {
 		panic("coinbase can only be set once")
 	}
 	b.header.Coinbase = addr
-	b.gasPool = new(GasPool).AddGas(b.header.GasLimit)
+	b.gasPool = NewGasPool(b.header.GasLimit)
 }
 
 // SetExtra sets the extra data field of the generated block.
@@ -117,10 +117,12 @@ func (b *BlockGen) addTx(bc *BlockChain, vmConfig vm.Config, tx *types.Transacti
 		evm          = vm.NewEVM(blockContext, b.statedb, b.cm.config, vmConfig)
 	)
 	b.statedb.SetTxContext(tx.Hash(), len(b.txs))
-	receipt, err := ApplyTransaction(evm, b.gasPool, b.statedb, b.header, tx, &b.header.GasUsed)
+	receipt, err := ApplyTransaction(evm, b.gasPool, b.statedb, b.header, tx)
 	if err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
+	b.header.GasUsed = b.gasPool.Used()
+
 	// Merge the tx-local access event into the "block-local" one, in order to collect
 	// all values, so that the witness can be built.
 	if b.statedb.Database().TrieDB().IsVerkle() {
diff --git a/core/error.go b/core/error.go
index 635d802863..4610842cee 100644
--- a/core/error.go
+++ b/core/error.go
@@ -58,6 +58,10 @@ var (
 	// by a transaction is higher than what's left in the block.
 	ErrGasLimitReached = errors.New("gas limit reached")
 
+	// ErrGasLimitOverflow is returned by the gas pool if the remaining gas
+	// exceeds the maximum value of uint64.
+	ErrGasLimitOverflow = errors.New("gas limit overflow")
+
 	// ErrInsufficientFundsForTransfer is returned if the transaction sender doesn't
 	// have enough funds for transfer(topmost call only).
 	ErrInsufficientFundsForTransfer = errors.New("insufficient funds for transfer")
diff --git a/core/gaspool.go b/core/gaspool.go
index 767222674f..14f5abd93c 100644
--- a/core/gaspool.go
+++ b/core/gaspool.go
@@ -21,39 +21,87 @@ import (
 	"math"
 )
 
-// GasPool tracks the amount of gas available during execution of the transactions
-// in a block. The zero value is a pool with zero gas available.
-type GasPool uint64
+// GasPool tracks the amount of gas available for transaction execution
+// within a block, along with the cumulative gas consumed.
+type GasPool struct {
+	remaining      uint64
+	initial        uint64
+	cumulativeUsed uint64
+}
 
-// AddGas makes gas available for execution.
-func (gp *GasPool) AddGas(amount uint64) *GasPool {
-	if uint64(*gp) > math.MaxUint64-amount {
-		panic("gas pool pushed above uint64")
+// NewGasPool initializes the gasPool with the given amount.
+func NewGasPool(amount uint64) *GasPool {
+	return &GasPool{
+		remaining: amount,
+		initial:   amount,
 	}
-	*(*uint64)(gp) += amount
-	return gp
 }
 
 // SubGas deducts the given amount from the pool if enough gas is
 // available and returns an error otherwise.
 func (gp *GasPool) SubGas(amount uint64) error {
-	if uint64(*gp) < amount {
+	if gp.remaining < amount {
 		return ErrGasLimitReached
 	}
-	*(*uint64)(gp) -= amount
+	gp.remaining -= amount
+	return nil
+}
+
+// ReturnGas adds the refunded gas back to the pool and updates
+// the cumulative gas usage accordingly.
+func (gp *GasPool) ReturnGas(returned uint64, gasUsed uint64) error {
+	if gp.remaining > math.MaxUint64-returned {
+		return fmt.Errorf("%w: remaining: %d, returned: %d", ErrGasLimitOverflow, gp.remaining, returned)
+	}
+	// The returned gas calculation differs across forks.
+	//
+	// - Pre-Amsterdam:
+	//   returned = purchased - remaining (refund included)
+	//
+	// - Post-Amsterdam:
+	//   returned = purchased - gasUsed (refund excluded)
+	gp.remaining += returned
+
+	// gasUsed = max(txGasUsed - gasRefund, calldataFloorGasCost)
+	// regardless of Amsterdam is activated or not.
+	gp.cumulativeUsed += gasUsed
 	return nil
 }
 
 // Gas returns the amount of gas remaining in the pool.
 func (gp *GasPool) Gas() uint64 {
-	return uint64(*gp)
+	return gp.remaining
 }
 
-// SetGas sets the amount of gas with the provided number.
-func (gp *GasPool) SetGas(gas uint64) {
-	*(*uint64)(gp) = gas
+// CumulativeUsed returns the amount of cumulative consumed gas (refunded included).
+func (gp *GasPool) CumulativeUsed() uint64 {
+	return gp.cumulativeUsed
+}
+
+// Used returns the amount of consumed gas.
+func (gp *GasPool) Used() uint64 {
+	if gp.initial < gp.remaining {
+		panic("gas used underflow")
+	}
+	return gp.initial - gp.remaining
+}
+
+// Snapshot returns the deep-copied object as the snapshot.
+func (gp *GasPool) Snapshot() *GasPool {
+	return &GasPool{
+		initial:        gp.initial,
+		remaining:      gp.remaining,
+		cumulativeUsed: gp.cumulativeUsed,
+	}
+}
+
+// Set sets the content of gasPool with the provided one.
+func (gp *GasPool) Set(other *GasPool) {
+	gp.initial = other.initial
+	gp.remaining = other.remaining
+	gp.cumulativeUsed = other.cumulativeUsed
 }
 
 func (gp *GasPool) String() string {
-	return fmt.Sprintf("%d", *gp)
+	return fmt.Sprintf("initial: %d, remaining: %d, cumulative used: %d", gp.initial, gp.remaining, gp.cumulativeUsed)
 }
diff --git a/core/state_prefetcher.go b/core/state_prefetcher.go
index 1c738c1e38..c91d40d94f 100644
--- a/core/state_prefetcher.go
+++ b/core/state_prefetcher.go
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ func (p *statePrefetcher) Prefetch(block *types.Block, statedb *state.StateDB, c
 
 			// We attempt to apply a transaction. The goal is not to execute
 			// the transaction successfully, rather to warm up touched data slots.
-			if _, err := ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(GasPool).AddGas(block.GasLimit())); err != nil {
+			if _, err := ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil); err != nil {
 				fails.Add(1)
 				return nil // Ugh, something went horribly wrong, bail out
 			}
diff --git a/core/state_processor.go b/core/state_processor.go
index 6eea74bdd8..998f180571 100644
--- a/core/state_processor.go
+++ b/core/state_processor.go
@@ -63,14 +63,12 @@ func (p *StateProcessor) Process(ctx context.Context, block *types.Block, stated
 	var (
 		config      = p.chainConfig()
 		receipts    types.Receipts
-		usedGas     = new(uint64)
 		header      = block.Header()
 		blockHash   = block.Hash()
 		blockNumber = block.Number()
 		allLogs     []*types.Log
-		gp          = new(GasPool).AddGas(block.GasLimit())
+		gp          = NewGasPool(block.GasLimit())
 	)
-
 	var tracingStateDB = vm.StateDB(statedb)
 	if hooks := cfg.Tracer; hooks != nil {
 		tracingStateDB = state.NewHookedState(statedb, hooks)
@@ -107,13 +105,15 @@ func (p *StateProcessor) Process(ctx context.Context, block *types.Block, stated
 			telemetry.StringAttribute("tx.hash", tx.Hash().Hex()),
 			telemetry.Int64Attribute("tx.index", int64(i)),
 		)
-		receipt, err := ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg, gp, statedb, blockNumber, blockHash, context.Time, tx, usedGas, evm)
-		spanEnd(&err)
+
+		receipt, err := ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg, gp, statedb, blockNumber, blockHash, context.Time, tx, evm)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("could not apply tx %d [%v]: %w", i, tx.Hash().Hex(), err)
 		}
 		receipts = append(receipts, receipt)
 		allLogs = append(allLogs, receipt.Logs...)
+
+		spanEnd(&err)
 	}
 	requests, err := postExecution(ctx, config, block, allLogs, evm)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ func (p *StateProcessor) Process(ctx context.Context, block *types.Block, stated
 		Receipts: receipts,
 		Requests: requests,
 		Logs:     allLogs,
-		GasUsed:  *usedGas,
+		GasUsed:  gp.Used(),
 	}, nil
 }
 
@@ -159,7 +159,7 @@ func postExecution(ctx context.Context, config *params.ChainConfig, block *types
 // ApplyTransactionWithEVM attempts to apply a transaction to the given state database
 // and uses the input parameters for its environment similar to ApplyTransaction. However,
 // this method takes an already created EVM instance as input.
-func ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg *Message, gp *GasPool, statedb *state.StateDB, blockNumber *big.Int, blockHash common.Hash, blockTime uint64, tx *types.Transaction, usedGas *uint64, evm *vm.EVM) (receipt *types.Receipt, err error) {
+func ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg *Message, gp *GasPool, statedb *state.StateDB, blockNumber *big.Int, blockHash common.Hash, blockTime uint64, tx *types.Transaction, evm *vm.EVM) (receipt *types.Receipt, err error) {
 	if hooks := evm.Config.Tracer; hooks != nil {
 		if hooks.OnTxStart != nil {
 			hooks.OnTxStart(evm.GetVMContext(), tx, msg.From)
@@ -180,27 +180,31 @@ func ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg *Message, gp *GasPool, statedb *state.StateDB,
 	} else {
 		root = statedb.IntermediateRoot(evm.ChainConfig().IsEIP158(blockNumber)).Bytes()
 	}
-	*usedGas += result.UsedGas
-
 	// Merge the tx-local access event into the "block-local" one, in order to collect
 	// all values, so that the witness can be built.
 	if statedb.Database().TrieDB().IsVerkle() {
 		statedb.AccessEvents().Merge(evm.AccessEvents)
 	}
-	return MakeReceipt(evm, result, statedb, blockNumber, blockHash, blockTime, tx, *usedGas, root), nil
+	return MakeReceipt(evm, result, statedb, blockNumber, blockHash, blockTime, tx, gp.CumulativeUsed(), root), nil
 }
 
 // MakeReceipt generates the receipt object for a transaction given its execution result.
-func MakeReceipt(evm *vm.EVM, result *ExecutionResult, statedb *state.StateDB, blockNumber *big.Int, blockHash common.Hash, blockTime uint64, tx *types.Transaction, usedGas uint64, root []byte) *types.Receipt {
-	// Create a new receipt for the transaction, storing the intermediate root and gas used
-	// by the tx.
-	receipt := &types.Receipt{Type: tx.Type(), PostState: root, CumulativeGasUsed: usedGas}
+func MakeReceipt(evm *vm.EVM, result *ExecutionResult, statedb *state.StateDB, blockNumber *big.Int, blockHash common.Hash, blockTime uint64, tx *types.Transaction, cumulativeGas uint64, root []byte) *types.Receipt {
+	// Create a new receipt for the transaction, storing the intermediate root
+	// and gas used by the tx.
+	//
+	// The cumulative gas used equals the sum of gasUsed across all preceding
+	// txs with refunded gas deducted.
+	receipt := &types.Receipt{Type: tx.Type(), PostState: root, CumulativeGasUsed: cumulativeGas}
 	if result.Failed() {
 		receipt.Status = types.ReceiptStatusFailed
 	} else {
 		receipt.Status = types.ReceiptStatusSuccessful
 	}
 	receipt.TxHash = tx.Hash()
+
+	// GasUsed = max(tx_gas_used - gas_refund, calldata_floor_gas_cost), unchanged
+	// in the Amsterdam fork.
 	receipt.GasUsed = result.UsedGas
 
 	if tx.Type() == types.BlobTxType {
@@ -224,15 +228,15 @@ func MakeReceipt(evm *vm.EVM, result *ExecutionResult, statedb *state.StateDB, b
 
 // ApplyTransaction attempts to apply a transaction to the given state database
 // and uses the input parameters for its environment. It returns the receipt
-// for the transaction, gas used and an error if the transaction failed,
+// for the transaction and an error if the transaction failed,
 // indicating the block was invalid.
-func ApplyTransaction(evm *vm.EVM, gp *GasPool, statedb *state.StateDB, header *types.Header, tx *types.Transaction, usedGas *uint64) (*types.Receipt, error) {
+func ApplyTransaction(evm *vm.EVM, gp *GasPool, statedb *state.StateDB, header *types.Header, tx *types.Transaction) (*types.Receipt, error) {
 	msg, err := TransactionToMessage(tx, types.MakeSigner(evm.ChainConfig(), header.Number, header.Time), header.BaseFee)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	// Create a new context to be used in the EVM environment
-	return ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg, gp, statedb, header.Number, header.Hash(), header.Time, tx, usedGas, evm)
+	return ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg, gp, statedb, header.Number, header.Hash(), header.Time, tx, evm)
 }
 
 // ProcessBeaconBlockRoot applies the EIP-4788 system call to the beacon block root
diff --git a/core/state_transition.go b/core/state_transition.go
index 62474b5f5b..76a5147363 100644
--- a/core/state_transition.go
+++ b/core/state_transition.go
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ import (
 // ExecutionResult includes all output after executing given evm
 // message no matter the execution itself is successful or not.
 type ExecutionResult struct {
-	UsedGas    uint64 // Total used gas, not including the refunded gas
+	UsedGas    uint64 // Total used gas, refunded gas is deducted
 	MaxUsedGas uint64 // Maximum gas consumed during execution, excluding gas refunds.
 	Err        error  // Any error encountered during the execution(listed in core/vm/errors.go)
 	ReturnData []byte // Returned data from evm(function result or data supplied with revert opcode)
@@ -210,6 +210,11 @@ func TransactionToMessage(tx *types.Transaction, s types.Signer, baseFee *big.In
 // indicates a core error meaning that the message would always fail for that particular
 // state and would never be accepted within a block.
 func ApplyMessage(evm *vm.EVM, msg *Message, gp *GasPool) (*ExecutionResult, error) {
+	// Do not panic if the gas pool is nil. This is allowed when executing
+	// a single message via RPC invocation.
+	if gp == nil {
+		gp = NewGasPool(msg.GasLimit)
+	}
 	evm.SetTxContext(NewEVMTxContext(msg))
 	return newStateTransition(evm, msg, gp).execute()
 }
@@ -300,8 +305,8 @@ func (st *stateTransition) buyGas() error {
 		st.evm.Config.Tracer.OnGasChange(0, st.msg.GasLimit, tracing.GasChangeTxInitialBalance)
 	}
 	st.gasRemaining = st.msg.GasLimit
-
 	st.initialGas = st.msg.GasLimit
+
 	mgvalU256, _ := uint256.FromBig(mgval)
 	st.state.SubBalance(st.msg.From, mgvalU256, tracing.BalanceDecreaseGasBuy)
 	return nil
@@ -542,8 +547,20 @@ func (st *stateTransition) execute() (*ExecutionResult, error) {
 			peakGasUsed = floorDataGas
 		}
 	}
+	// Return gas to the user
 	st.returnGas()
 
+	// Return gas to the gas pool
+	if rules.IsAmsterdam {
+		// Refund is excluded for returning
+		err = st.gp.ReturnGas(st.initialGas-peakGasUsed, st.gasUsed())
+	} else {
+		// Refund is included for returning
+		err = st.gp.ReturnGas(st.gasRemaining, st.gasUsed())
+	}
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
 	effectiveTip := msg.GasPrice
 	if rules.IsLondon {
 		effectiveTip = new(big.Int).Sub(msg.GasPrice, st.evm.Context.BaseFee)
@@ -564,7 +581,6 @@ func (st *stateTransition) execute() (*ExecutionResult, error) {
 			st.evm.AccessEvents.AddAccount(st.evm.Context.Coinbase, true, math.MaxUint64)
 		}
 	}
-
 	return &ExecutionResult{
 		UsedGas:    st.gasUsed(),
 		MaxUsedGas: peakGasUsed,
@@ -660,10 +676,6 @@ func (st *stateTransition) returnGas() {
 	if st.evm.Config.Tracer != nil && st.evm.Config.Tracer.OnGasChange != nil && st.gasRemaining > 0 {
 		st.evm.Config.Tracer.OnGasChange(st.gasRemaining, 0, tracing.GasChangeTxLeftOverReturned)
 	}
-
-	// Also return remaining gas to the block gas counter so it is
-	// available for the next transaction.
-	st.gp.AddGas(st.gasRemaining)
 }
 
 // gasUsed returns the amount of gas used up by the state transition.
diff --git a/core/tracing/hooks.go b/core/tracing/hooks.go
index c85abe6482..6d0131ce70 100644
--- a/core/tracing/hooks.go
+++ b/core/tracing/hooks.go
@@ -358,7 +358,7 @@ const (
 	// this generates an increase in gas. There is at most one of such gas change per transaction.
 	GasChangeTxRefunds GasChangeReason = 3
 	// GasChangeTxLeftOverReturned is the amount of gas left over at the end of transaction's execution that will be returned
-	// to the chain. This change will always be a negative change as we "drain" left over gas towards 0. If there was no gas
+	// to the account. This change will always be a negative change as we "drain" left over gas towards 0. If there was no gas
 	// left at the end of execution, no such even will be emitted. The returned gas's value in Wei is returned to caller.
 	// There is at most one of such gas change per transaction.
 	GasChangeTxLeftOverReturned GasChangeReason = 4
diff --git a/eth/catalyst/simulated_beacon.go b/eth/catalyst/simulated_beacon.go
index ed3fa76a57..452902c78c 100644
--- a/eth/catalyst/simulated_beacon.go
+++ b/eth/catalyst/simulated_beacon.go
@@ -103,6 +103,8 @@ type SimulatedBeacon struct {
 
 func payloadVersion(config *params.ChainConfig, time uint64) engine.PayloadVersion {
 	switch config.LatestFork(time) {
+	case forks.Amsterdam:
+		return engine.PayloadV4
 	case forks.BPO5, forks.BPO4, forks.BPO3, forks.BPO2, forks.BPO1, forks.Osaka, forks.Prague, forks.Cancun:
 		return engine.PayloadV3
 	case forks.Paris, forks.Shanghai:
@@ -198,13 +200,19 @@ func (c *SimulatedBeacon) sealBlock(withdrawals []*types.Withdrawal, timestamp u
 
 	var random [32]byte
 	rand.Read(random[:])
-	fcResponse, err := c.engineAPI.forkchoiceUpdated(c.curForkchoiceState, &engine.PayloadAttributes{
+
+	attribute := &engine.PayloadAttributes{
 		Timestamp:             timestamp,
 		SuggestedFeeRecipient: feeRecipient,
 		Withdrawals:           withdrawals,
 		Random:                random,
 		BeaconRoot:            &common.Hash{},
-	}, version, false)
+	}
+	if c.eth.BlockChain().Config().LatestFork(timestamp) == forks.Amsterdam {
+		slotNumber := uint64(0)
+		attribute.SlotNumber = &slotNumber
+	}
+	fcResponse, err := c.engineAPI.forkchoiceUpdated(c.curForkchoiceState, attribute, version, false)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/eth/gasestimator/gasestimator.go b/eth/gasestimator/gasestimator.go
index 6e79fbd62b..80aeb3d3b2 100644
--- a/eth/gasestimator/gasestimator.go
+++ b/eth/gasestimator/gasestimator.go
@@ -20,7 +20,6 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
-	"math"
 	"math/big"
 
 	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common"
@@ -268,7 +267,7 @@ func run(ctx context.Context, call *core.Message, opts *Options) (*core.Executio
 		evm.Cancel()
 	}()
 	// Execute the call, returning a wrapped error or the result
-	result, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, call, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(math.MaxUint64))
+	result, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, call, nil)
 	if vmerr := dirtyState.Error(); vmerr != nil {
 		return nil, vmerr
 	}
diff --git a/eth/state_accessor.go b/eth/state_accessor.go
index 1261320b58..871f2c9269 100644
--- a/eth/state_accessor.go
+++ b/eth/state_accessor.go
@@ -265,7 +265,7 @@ func (eth *Ethereum) stateAtTransaction(ctx context.Context, block *types.Block,
 
 		// Not yet the searched for transaction, execute on top of the current state
 		statedb.SetTxContext(tx.Hash(), idx)
-		if _, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas())); err != nil {
+		if _, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil); err != nil {
 			return nil, vm.BlockContext{}, nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("transaction %#x failed: %v", tx.Hash(), err)
 		}
 		// Ensure any modifications are committed to the state
diff --git a/eth/tracers/api.go b/eth/tracers/api.go
index 5f2f16627a..eed404622e 100644
--- a/eth/tracers/api.go
+++ b/eth/tracers/api.go
@@ -551,7 +551,7 @@ func (api *API) IntermediateRoots(ctx context.Context, hash common.Hash, config
 		}
 		msg, _ := core.TransactionToMessage(tx, signer, block.BaseFee())
 		statedb.SetTxContext(tx.Hash(), i)
-		if _, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(msg.GasLimit)); err != nil {
+		if _, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil); err != nil {
 			log.Warn("Tracing intermediate roots did not complete", "txindex", i, "txhash", tx.Hash(), "err", err)
 			// We intentionally don't return the error here: if we do, then the RPC server will not
 			// return the roots. Most likely, the caller already knows that a certain transaction fails to
@@ -707,7 +707,7 @@ txloop:
 		// Generate the next state snapshot fast without tracing
 		msg, _ := core.TransactionToMessage(tx, signer, block.BaseFee())
 		statedb.SetTxContext(tx.Hash(), i)
-		if _, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(msg.GasLimit)); err != nil {
+		if _, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil); err != nil {
 			failed = err
 			break txloop
 		}
@@ -792,7 +792,7 @@ func (api *API) standardTraceBlockToFile(ctx context.Context, block *types.Block
 		msg, _ := core.TransactionToMessage(tx, signer, block.BaseFee())
 		if txHash != (common.Hash{}) && tx.Hash() != txHash {
 			// Process the tx to update state, but don't trace it.
-			_, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(msg.GasLimit))
+			_, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 			if err != nil {
 				return dumps, err
 			}
@@ -827,7 +827,7 @@ func (api *API) standardTraceBlockToFile(ctx context.Context, block *types.Block
 		if tracer.OnTxStart != nil {
 			tracer.OnTxStart(evm.GetVMContext(), tx, msg.From)
 		}
-		_, err = core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(msg.GasLimit))
+		_, err = core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 		if writer != nil {
 			writer.Flush()
 		}
@@ -1011,7 +1011,6 @@ func (api *API) traceTx(ctx context.Context, tx *types.Transaction, message *cor
 		tracer  *Tracer
 		err     error
 		timeout = defaultTraceTimeout
-		usedGas uint64
 	)
 	if config == nil {
 		config = &TraceConfig{}
@@ -1055,7 +1054,8 @@ func (api *API) traceTx(ctx context.Context, tx *types.Transaction, message *cor
 
 	// Call Prepare to clear out the statedb access list
 	statedb.SetTxContext(txctx.TxHash, txctx.TxIndex)
-	_, err = core.ApplyTransactionWithEVM(message, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(message.GasLimit), statedb, vmctx.BlockNumber, txctx.BlockHash, vmctx.Time, tx, &usedGas, evm)
+
+	_, err = core.ApplyTransactionWithEVM(message, core.NewGasPool(message.GasLimit), statedb, vmctx.BlockNumber, txctx.BlockHash, vmctx.Time, tx, evm)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("tracing failed: %w", err)
 	}
diff --git a/eth/tracers/api_test.go b/eth/tracers/api_test.go
index f76c35a1d5..1d5024ad08 100644
--- a/eth/tracers/api_test.go
+++ b/eth/tracers/api_test.go
@@ -188,7 +188,7 @@ func (b *testBackend) StateAtTransaction(ctx context.Context, block *types.Block
 			return tx, context, statedb, release, nil
 		}
 		msg, _ := core.TransactionToMessage(tx, signer, block.BaseFee())
-		if _, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas())); err != nil {
+		if _, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil); err != nil {
 			return nil, vm.BlockContext{}, nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("transaction %#x failed: %v", tx.Hash(), err)
 		}
 		statedb.Finalise(evm.ChainConfig().IsEIP158(block.Number()))
diff --git a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/calltrace_test.go b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/calltrace_test.go
index 08bdafd91f..85eaef32ce 100644
--- a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/calltrace_test.go
+++ b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/calltrace_test.go
@@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ func testCallTracer(tracerName string, dirPath string, t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			evm := vm.NewEVM(context, logState, test.Genesis.Config, vm.Config{Tracer: tracer.Hooks})
 			tracer.OnTxStart(evm.GetVMContext(), tx, msg.From)
-			vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas()))
+			vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 			if err != nil {
 				t.Fatalf("failed to execute transaction: %v", err)
 			}
@@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ func benchTracer(tracerName string, test *callTracerTest, b *testing.B) {
 		if tracer.OnTxStart != nil {
 			tracer.OnTxStart(evm.GetVMContext(), tx, msg.From)
 		}
-		_, err = core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas()))
+		_, err = core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 		if err != nil {
 			b.Fatalf("failed to execute transaction: %v", err)
 		}
@@ -374,7 +374,7 @@ func TestInternals(t *testing.T) {
 				t.Fatalf("test %v: failed to create message: %v", tc.name, err)
 			}
 			tc.tracer.OnTxStart(evm.GetVMContext(), tx, msg.From)
-			vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas()))
+			vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 			if err != nil {
 				t.Fatalf("test %v: failed to execute transaction: %v", tc.name, err)
 			}
diff --git a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/erc7562_tracer_test.go b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/erc7562_tracer_test.go
index f6e81f5886..02377b8dcb 100644
--- a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/erc7562_tracer_test.go
+++ b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/erc7562_tracer_test.go
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ func TestErc7562Tracer(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			evm := vm.NewEVM(context, logState, test.Genesis.Config, vm.Config{Tracer: tracer.Hooks})
 			tracer.OnTxStart(evm.GetVMContext(), tx, msg.From)
-			vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas()))
+			vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 			if err != nil {
 				t.Fatalf("failed to execute transaction: %v", err)
 			}
diff --git a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/flat_calltrace_test.go b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/flat_calltrace_test.go
index 1882ef315e..37a05966ee 100644
--- a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/flat_calltrace_test.go
+++ b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/flat_calltrace_test.go
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ func flatCallTracerTestRunner(tracerName string, filename string, dirPath string
 	}
 	evm := vm.NewEVM(context, state.StateDB, test.Genesis.Config, vm.Config{Tracer: tracer.Hooks})
 	tracer.OnTxStart(evm.GetVMContext(), tx, msg.From)
-	vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas()))
+	vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to execute transaction: %v", err)
 	}
diff --git a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/prestate_test.go b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/prestate_test.go
index 456d962c69..23216fa78c 100644
--- a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/prestate_test.go
+++ b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/prestate_test.go
@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@ func testPrestateTracer(tracerName string, dirPath string, t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			evm := vm.NewEVM(context, state.StateDB, test.Genesis.Config, vm.Config{Tracer: tracer.Hooks})
 			tracer.OnTxStart(evm.GetVMContext(), tx, msg.From)
-			vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas()))
+			vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 			if err != nil {
 				t.Fatalf("failed to execute transaction: %v", err)
 			}
diff --git a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/selfdestruct_state_test.go b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/selfdestruct_state_test.go
index 2c714b6dce..bb1a3d9f18 100644
--- a/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/selfdestruct_state_test.go
+++ b/eth/tracers/internal/tracetest/selfdestruct_state_test.go
@@ -620,8 +620,7 @@ func TestSelfdestructStateTracer(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			context := core.NewEVMBlockContext(block.Header(), blockchain, nil)
 			evm := vm.NewEVM(context, hookedState, tt.genesis.Config, vm.Config{Tracer: tracer.Hooks()})
-			usedGas := uint64(0)
-			_, err = core.ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas()), statedb, block.Number(), block.Hash(), block.Time(), tx, &usedGas, evm)
+			_, err = core.ApplyTransactionWithEVM(msg, core.NewGasPool(msg.GasLimit), statedb, block.Number(), block.Hash(), block.Time(), tx, evm)
 			if err != nil {
 				t.Fatalf("failed to execute transaction: %v", err)
 			}
diff --git a/eth/tracers/tracers_test.go b/eth/tracers/tracers_test.go
index 06edeaf698..24f9b3701e 100644
--- a/eth/tracers/tracers_test.go
+++ b/eth/tracers/tracers_test.go
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ func BenchmarkTransactionTraceV2(b *testing.B) {
 		evm.Config.Tracer = tracer
 
 		snap := state.StateDB.Snapshot()
-		_, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(tx.Gas()))
+		_, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 		if err != nil {
 			b.Fatal(err)
 		}
diff --git a/internal/ethapi/api.go b/internal/ethapi/api.go
index 4f3071cb03..ff6797f67b 100644
--- a/internal/ethapi/api.go
+++ b/internal/ethapi/api.go
@@ -741,11 +741,10 @@ func doCall(ctx context.Context, b Backend, args TransactionArgs, state *state.S
 	// Make sure the context is cancelled when the call has completed
 	// this makes sure resources are cleaned up.
 	defer cancel()
-	gp := new(core.GasPool)
+
+	gp := core.NewGasPool(globalGasCap)
 	if globalGasCap == 0 {
-		gp.AddGas(gomath.MaxUint64)
-	} else {
-		gp.AddGas(globalGasCap)
+		gp = core.NewGasPool(gomath.MaxUint64)
 	}
 	return applyMessage(ctx, b, args, state, header, timeout, gp, &blockCtx, &vm.Config{NoBaseFee: true}, precompiles)
 }
@@ -855,12 +854,11 @@ func (api *BlockChainAPI) SimulateV1(ctx context.Context, opts simOpts, blockNrO
 		gasCap = gomath.MaxUint64
 	}
 	sim := &simulator{
-		b:           api.b,
-		state:       state,
-		base:        base,
-		chainConfig: api.b.ChainConfig(),
-		// Each tx and all the series of txes shouldn't consume more gas than cap
-		gp:             new(core.GasPool).AddGas(gasCap),
+		b:              api.b,
+		state:          state,
+		base:           base,
+		chainConfig:    api.b.ChainConfig(),
+		gasRemaining:   gasCap,
 		traceTransfers: opts.TraceTransfers,
 		validate:       opts.Validation,
 		fullTx:         opts.ReturnFullTransactions,
@@ -1369,7 +1367,7 @@ func AccessList(ctx context.Context, b Backend, blockNrOrHash rpc.BlockNumberOrH
 		if msg.BlobGasFeeCap != nil && msg.BlobGasFeeCap.BitLen() == 0 {
 			evm.Context.BlobBaseFee = new(big.Int)
 		}
-		res, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, new(core.GasPool).AddGas(msg.GasLimit))
+		res, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, nil)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, 0, nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to apply transaction: %v err: %v", args.ToTransaction(types.LegacyTxType).Hash(), err)
 		}
diff --git a/internal/ethapi/api_test.go b/internal/ethapi/api_test.go
index 2f0c07694d..a82df440e6 100644
--- a/internal/ethapi/api_test.go
+++ b/internal/ethapi/api_test.go
@@ -2507,7 +2507,7 @@ func TestSimulateV1ChainLinkage(t *testing.T) {
 		state:          stateDB,
 		base:           baseHeader,
 		chainConfig:    backend.ChainConfig(),
-		gp:             new(core.GasPool).AddGas(math.MaxUint64),
+		gasRemaining:   math.MaxUint64,
 		traceTransfers: false,
 		validate:       false,
 		fullTx:         false,
@@ -2592,7 +2592,7 @@ func TestSimulateV1TxSender(t *testing.T) {
 		state:          stateDB,
 		base:           baseHeader,
 		chainConfig:    backend.ChainConfig(),
-		gp:             new(core.GasPool).AddGas(math.MaxUint64),
+		gasRemaining:   math.MaxUint64,
 		traceTransfers: false,
 		validate:       false,
 		fullTx:         true,
diff --git a/internal/ethapi/simulate.go b/internal/ethapi/simulate.go
index c9396cd327..325ee6d5bb 100644
--- a/internal/ethapi/simulate.go
+++ b/internal/ethapi/simulate.go
@@ -156,7 +156,7 @@ type simulator struct {
 	state          *state.StateDB
 	base           *types.Header
 	chainConfig    *params.ChainConfig
-	gp             *core.GasPool
+	gasRemaining   uint64
 	traceTransfers bool
 	validate       bool
 	fullTx         bool
@@ -200,7 +200,13 @@ func (sim *simulator) execute(ctx context.Context, blocks []simBlock) ([]*simBlo
 			return nil, err
 		}
 		headers[bi] = result.Header()
-		results[bi] = &simBlockResult{fullTx: sim.fullTx, chainConfig: sim.chainConfig, Block: result, Calls: callResults, senders: senders}
+		results[bi] = &simBlockResult{
+			fullTx:      sim.fullTx,
+			chainConfig: sim.chainConfig,
+			Block:       result,
+			Calls:       callResults,
+			senders:     senders,
+		}
 		parent = result.Header()
 	}
 	return results, nil
@@ -234,15 +240,19 @@ func (sim *simulator) processBlock(ctx context.Context, block *simBlock, header,
 		blockContext.BlobBaseFee = block.BlockOverrides.BlobBaseFee.ToInt()
 	}
 	precompiles := sim.activePrecompiles(header)
+
 	// State overrides are applied prior to execution of a block
 	if err := block.StateOverrides.Apply(sim.state, precompiles); err != nil {
 		return nil, nil, nil, err
 	}
 	var (
-		gasUsed, blobGasUsed uint64
-		txes                 = make([]*types.Transaction, len(block.Calls))
-		callResults          = make([]simCallResult, len(block.Calls))
-		receipts             = make([]*types.Receipt, len(block.Calls))
+		gp          = core.NewGasPool(blockContext.GasLimit)
+		blobGasUsed uint64
+
+		txes        = make([]*types.Transaction, len(block.Calls))
+		callResults = make([]simCallResult, len(block.Calls))
+		receipts    = make([]*types.Receipt, len(block.Calls))
+
 		// Block hash will be repaired after execution.
 		tracer   = newTracer(sim.traceTransfers, blockContext.BlockNumber.Uint64(), blockContext.Time, common.Hash{}, common.Hash{}, 0)
 		vmConfig = &vm.Config{
@@ -272,10 +282,11 @@ func (sim *simulator) processBlock(ctx context.Context, block *simBlock, header,
 	}
 	var allLogs []*types.Log
 	for i, call := range block.Calls {
+		// Terminate if the context is cancelled
 		if err := ctx.Err(); err != nil {
 			return nil, nil, nil, err
 		}
-		if err := sim.sanitizeCall(&call, sim.state, header, blockContext, &gasUsed); err != nil {
+		if err := sim.sanitizeCall(&call, sim.state, header, gp); err != nil {
 			return nil, nil, nil, err
 		}
 		var (
@@ -285,10 +296,11 @@ func (sim *simulator) processBlock(ctx context.Context, block *simBlock, header,
 		txes[i] = tx
 		senders[txHash] = call.from()
 		tracer.reset(txHash, uint(i))
-		sim.state.SetTxContext(txHash, i)
+
 		// EoA check is always skipped, even in validation mode.
+		sim.state.SetTxContext(txHash, i)
 		msg := call.ToMessage(header.BaseFee, !sim.validate)
-		result, err := applyMessageWithEVM(ctx, evm, msg, timeout, sim.gp)
+		result, err := applyMessageWithEVM(ctx, evm, msg, timeout, gp)
 		if err != nil {
 			txErr := txValidationError(err)
 			return nil, nil, nil, txErr
@@ -300,9 +312,16 @@ func (sim *simulator) processBlock(ctx context.Context, block *simBlock, header,
 		} else {
 			root = sim.state.IntermediateRoot(sim.chainConfig.IsEIP158(blockContext.BlockNumber)).Bytes()
 		}
-		gasUsed += result.UsedGas
-		receipts[i] = core.MakeReceipt(evm, result, sim.state, blockContext.BlockNumber, common.Hash{}, blockContext.Time, tx, gasUsed, root)
+		receipts[i] = core.MakeReceipt(evm, result, sim.state, blockContext.BlockNumber, common.Hash{}, blockContext.Time, tx, gp.CumulativeUsed(), root)
 		blobGasUsed += receipts[i].BlobGasUsed
+
+		// Make sure the gas cap is still enforced. It's only for
+		// internally protection.
+		if sim.gasRemaining < result.UsedGas {
+			return nil, nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("gas cap reached, required: %d, remaining: %d", result.UsedGas, sim.gasRemaining)
+		}
+		sim.gasRemaining -= result.UsedGas
+
 		logs := tracer.Logs()
 		callRes := simCallResult{ReturnValue: result.Return(), Logs: logs, GasUsed: hexutil.Uint64(result.UsedGas)}
 		if result.Failed() {
@@ -320,12 +339,14 @@ func (sim *simulator) processBlock(ctx context.Context, block *simBlock, header,
 		}
 		callResults[i] = callRes
 	}
-	header.GasUsed = gasUsed
+	// Assign total consumed gas to the header
+	header.GasUsed = gp.Used()
 	if sim.chainConfig.IsCancun(header.Number, header.Time) {
 		header.BlobGasUsed = &blobGasUsed
 	}
-	var requests [][]byte
+
 	// Process EIP-7685 requests
+	var requests [][]byte
 	if sim.chainConfig.IsPrague(header.Number, header.Time) {
 		requests = [][]byte{}
 		// EIP-6110
@@ -345,7 +366,11 @@ func (sim *simulator) processBlock(ctx context.Context, block *simBlock, header,
 		reqHash := types.CalcRequestsHash(requests)
 		header.RequestsHash = &reqHash
 	}
-	blockBody := &types.Body{Transactions: txes, Withdrawals: *block.BlockOverrides.Withdrawals}
+
+	blockBody := &types.Body{
+		Transactions: txes,
+		Withdrawals:  *block.BlockOverrides.Withdrawals,
+	}
 	chainHeadReader := &simChainHeadReader{ctx, sim.b}
 	b, err := sim.b.Engine().FinalizeAndAssemble(chainHeadReader, header, sim.state, blockBody, receipts)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -366,23 +391,20 @@ func repairLogs(calls []simCallResult, hash common.Hash) {
 	}
 }
 
-func (sim *simulator) sanitizeCall(call *TransactionArgs, state vm.StateDB, header *types.Header, blockContext vm.BlockContext, gasUsed *uint64) error {
+func (sim *simulator) sanitizeCall(call *TransactionArgs, state vm.StateDB, header *types.Header, gp *core.GasPool) error {
 	if call.Nonce == nil {
 		nonce := state.GetNonce(call.from())
 		call.Nonce = (*hexutil.Uint64)(&nonce)
 	}
 	// Let the call run wild unless explicitly specified.
+	remaining := gp.Gas()
 	if call.Gas == nil {
-		remaining := blockContext.GasLimit - *gasUsed
 		call.Gas = (*hexutil.Uint64)(&remaining)
 	}
-	if *gasUsed+uint64(*call.Gas) > blockContext.GasLimit {
-		return &blockGasLimitReachedError{fmt.Sprintf("block gas limit reached: %d >= %d", *gasUsed, blockContext.GasLimit)}
+	if remaining < uint64(*call.Gas) {
+		return &blockGasLimitReachedError{fmt.Sprintf("block gas limit reached: remaining: %d, required: %d", remaining, *call.Gas)}
 	}
-	if err := call.CallDefaults(sim.gp.Gas(), header.BaseFee, sim.chainConfig.ChainID); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	return nil
+	return call.CallDefaults(0, header.BaseFee, sim.chainConfig.ChainID)
 }
 
 func (sim *simulator) activePrecompiles(base *types.Header) vm.PrecompiledContracts {
@@ -473,12 +495,14 @@ func (sim *simulator) makeHeaders(blocks []simBlock) ([]*types.Header, error) {
 		}
 		overrides := block.BlockOverrides
 
-		var withdrawalsHash *common.Hash
 		number := overrides.Number.ToInt()
 		timestamp := (uint64)(*overrides.Time)
+
+		var withdrawalsHash *common.Hash
 		if sim.chainConfig.IsShanghai(number, timestamp) {
 			withdrawalsHash = &types.EmptyWithdrawalsHash
 		}
+
 		var parentBeaconRoot *common.Hash
 		if sim.chainConfig.IsCancun(number, timestamp) {
 			parentBeaconRoot = &common.Hash{}
@@ -508,7 +532,11 @@ func (sim *simulator) makeHeaders(blocks []simBlock) ([]*types.Header, error) {
 }
 
 func (sim *simulator) newSimulatedChainContext(ctx context.Context, headers []*types.Header) *ChainContext {
-	return NewChainContext(ctx, &simBackend{base: sim.base, b: sim.b, headers: headers})
+	return NewChainContext(ctx, &simBackend{
+		base:    sim.base,
+		b:       sim.b,
+		headers: headers,
+	})
 }
 
 type simBackend struct {
diff --git a/internal/ethapi/simulate_test.go b/internal/ethapi/simulate_test.go
index c747b76477..b6037a8f35 100644
--- a/internal/ethapi/simulate_test.go
+++ b/internal/ethapi/simulate_test.go
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@
 package ethapi
 
 import (
+	"math"
 	"math/big"
 	"testing"
 
@@ -80,7 +81,10 @@ func TestSimulateSanitizeBlockOrder(t *testing.T) {
 			err:           "block timestamps must be in order: 72 <= 72",
 		},
 	} {
-		sim := &simulator{base: &types.Header{Number: big.NewInt(int64(tc.baseNumber)), Time: tc.baseTimestamp}}
+		sim := &simulator{
+			base:         &types.Header{Number: big.NewInt(int64(tc.baseNumber)), Time: tc.baseTimestamp},
+			gasRemaining: math.MaxUint64,
+		}
 		res, err := sim.sanitizeChain(tc.blocks)
 		if err != nil {
 			if err.Error() == tc.err {
diff --git a/miner/stress/main.go b/miner/stress/main.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..aaf0993c37
--- /dev/null
+++ b/miner/stress/main.go
@@ -0,0 +1,210 @@
+// Copyright 2018 The go-ethereum Authors
+// This file is part of the go-ethereum library.
+//
+// The go-ethereum library is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+// it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+// the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
+// (at your option) any later version.
+//
+// The go-ethereum library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+// but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+// MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
+// GNU Lesser General Public License for more details.
+//
+// You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public License
+// along with the go-ethereum library. If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
+
+// This file contains a miner stress test based on the Engine API flow.
+package main
+
+import (
+	"crypto/ecdsa"
+	"math/big"
+	"math/rand"
+	"os"
+	"os/signal"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common/fdlimit"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/core"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/core/txpool/legacypool"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/core/types"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/crypto"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/eth"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/eth/catalyst"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/eth/downloader"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/eth/ethconfig"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/log"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/node"
+	"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/params"
+)
+
+var refundContract = common.HexToAddress("0x1000000000000000000000000000000000000001")
+
+func main() {
+	log.SetDefault(log.NewLogger(log.NewTerminalHandlerWithLevel(os.Stderr, log.LevelInfo, true)))
+	fdlimit.Raise(2048)
+
+	// Generate a batch of accounts to seal and fund with
+	faucets := make([]*ecdsa.PrivateKey, 128)
+	for i := 0; i < len(faucets); i++ {
+		faucets[i], _ = crypto.GenerateKey()
+	}
+	// Create a post-merge network where blocks are built/inserted through
+	// engine API calls driven by a simulated beacon client.
+	genesis := makeGenesis(faucets)
+
+	// Handle interrupts.
+	interruptCh := make(chan os.Signal, 5)
+	signal.Notify(interruptCh, os.Interrupt)
+
+	// Start one node that accepts transactions and builds/inserts blocks via
+	// Engine API (through the simulated beacon driver).
+	stack, backend, beacon, err := makeNode(genesis)
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	defer stack.Close()
+	defer beacon.Stop()
+
+	// Start injecting transactions from the faucet like crazy
+	var (
+		sent      uint64
+		nonces    = make([]uint64, len(faucets))
+		signer    = types.LatestSigner(genesis.Config)
+		refundSet = true // slot 0 starts as non-zero in genesis
+	)
+	for {
+		// Stop when interrupted.
+		select {
+		case <-interruptCh:
+			return
+		default:
+		}
+
+		var (
+			tx  *types.Transaction
+			err error
+		)
+		// Every third tx targets a contract path that alternates set/clear.
+		// Clearing a previously non-zero slot triggers gas refund.
+		if sent%3 == 0 {
+			var data []byte
+			if refundSet {
+				data = nil // empty calldata => clear slot to zero (refund path)
+			} else {
+				data = []byte{0x01} // non-empty calldata => set slot to one
+			}
+			tx, err = types.SignTx(types.NewTransaction(nonces[0], refundContract, new(big.Int), 50000, big.NewInt(100000000000), data), signer, faucets[0])
+			if err != nil {
+				panic(err)
+			}
+			nonces[0]++
+			refundSet = !refundSet
+		} else {
+			index := 1 + rand.Intn(len(faucets)-1)
+			tx, err = types.SignTx(types.NewTransaction(nonces[index], crypto.PubkeyToAddress(faucets[index].PublicKey), new(big.Int), 21000, big.NewInt(100000000000), nil), signer, faucets[index])
+			if err != nil {
+				panic(err)
+			}
+			nonces[index]++
+		}
+		errs := backend.TxPool().Add([]*types.Transaction{tx}, true)
+		for _, err := range errs {
+			if err != nil {
+				panic(err)
+			}
+		}
+		sent++
+
+		// Create and import blocks through the engine API path.
+		if sent%256 == 0 {
+			beacon.Commit()
+		}
+
+		// Wait if we're too saturated
+		if pend, _ := backend.TxPool().Stats(); pend > 4096 {
+			beacon.Commit()
+			time.Sleep(50 * time.Millisecond)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// makeGenesis creates a post-merge genesis block.
+func makeGenesis(faucets []*ecdsa.PrivateKey) *core.Genesis {
+	config := *params.AllDevChainProtocolChanges
+	config.ChainID = big.NewInt(18)
+
+	blockZero := uint64(0)
+	config.AmsterdamTime = &blockZero
+	config.BlobScheduleConfig.Amsterdam = &params.BlobConfig{
+		Target:         14,
+		Max:            21,
+		UpdateFraction: 13739630,
+	}
+
+	genesis := &core.Genesis{
+		Config:   &config,
+		GasLimit: 25000000,
+		Alloc:    types.GenesisAlloc{},
+	}
+	for _, faucet := range faucets {
+		genesis.Alloc[crypto.PubkeyToAddress(faucet.PublicKey)] = types.Account{
+			Balance: new(big.Int).Exp(big.NewInt(2), big.NewInt(128), nil),
+		}
+	}
+	// Runtime code:
+	// - empty calldata: SSTORE(0,0)
+	// - non-empty calldata: SSTORE(0,1)
+	// Slot 0 is initialized to 1 so the first clear includes gas refund.
+	genesis.Alloc[refundContract] = types.Account{
+		Code: common.FromHex("0x3615600b576001600055005b600060005500"),
+		Storage: map[common.Hash]common.Hash{
+			common.Hash{}: common.BigToHash(big.NewInt(1)),
+		},
+	}
+	return genesis
+}
+
+func makeNode(genesis *core.Genesis) (*node.Node, *eth.Ethereum, *catalyst.SimulatedBeacon, error) {
+	// Define the basic configurations for the Ethereum node
+	datadir, _ := os.MkdirTemp("", "")
+
+	config := &node.Config{
+		Name:    "geth",
+		DataDir: datadir,
+	}
+	// Start the node and configure a full Ethereum node on it
+	stack, err := node.New(config)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, nil, err
+	}
+	// Create and register the backend
+	ethBackend, err := eth.New(stack, &ethconfig.Config{
+		Genesis:            genesis,
+		NetworkId:          genesis.Config.ChainID.Uint64(),
+		SyncMode:           downloader.FullSync,
+		DatabaseCache:      256,
+		DatabaseHandles:    256,
+		TxPool:             legacypool.DefaultConfig,
+		GPO:                ethconfig.Defaults.GPO,
+		Miner:              ethconfig.Defaults.Miner,
+		SlowBlockThreshold: time.Second,
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, nil, err
+	}
+
+	if err := stack.Start(); err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, nil, err
+	}
+	driver, err := catalyst.NewSimulatedBeacon(0, common.Address{}, ethBackend)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, nil, err
+	}
+	if err := driver.Start(); err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, nil, err
+	}
+	return stack, ethBackend, driver, nil
+}
diff --git a/miner/worker.go b/miner/worker.go
index b5fb7a344d..d1a8b25b2a 100644
--- a/miner/worker.go
+++ b/miner/worker.go
@@ -140,9 +140,6 @@ func (miner *Miner) generateWork(genParam *generateParams, witness bool) *newPay
 		// If forceOverrides is true and overrideTxs is not empty, commit the override transactions
 		// otherwise, fill the block with the current transactions from the txpool
 		if genParam.forceOverrides && len(genParam.overrideTxs) > 0 {
-			if work.gasPool == nil {
-				work.gasPool = new(core.GasPool).AddGas(work.header.GasLimit)
-			}
 			for _, tx := range genParam.overrideTxs {
 				work.state.SetTxContext(tx.Hash(), work.tcount)
 				if err := miner.commitTransaction(work, tx); err != nil {
@@ -319,6 +316,7 @@ func (miner *Miner) makeEnv(parent *types.Header, header *types.Header, coinbase
 		state:    state,
 		size:     uint64(header.Size()),
 		coinbase: coinbase,
+		gasPool:  core.NewGasPool(header.GasLimit),
 		header:   header,
 		witness:  state.Witness(),
 		evm:      vm.NewEVM(core.NewEVMBlockContext(header, miner.chain, &coinbase), state, miner.chainConfig, vm.Config{}),
@@ -372,24 +370,20 @@ func (miner *Miner) commitBlobTransaction(env *environment, tx *types.Transactio
 func (miner *Miner) applyTransaction(env *environment, tx *types.Transaction) (*types.Receipt, error) {
 	var (
 		snap = env.state.Snapshot()
-		gp   = env.gasPool.Gas()
+		gp   = env.gasPool.Snapshot()
 	)
-	receipt, err := core.ApplyTransaction(env.evm, env.gasPool, env.state, env.header, tx, &env.header.GasUsed)
+	receipt, err := core.ApplyTransaction(env.evm, env.gasPool, env.state, env.header, tx)
 	if err != nil {
 		env.state.RevertToSnapshot(snap)
-		env.gasPool.SetGas(gp)
+		env.gasPool.Set(gp)
+		return nil, err
 	}
-	return receipt, err
+	env.header.GasUsed = env.gasPool.Used()
+	return receipt, nil
 }
 
 func (miner *Miner) commitTransactions(env *environment, plainTxs, blobTxs *transactionsByPriceAndNonce, interrupt *atomic.Int32) error {
-	var (
-		isCancun = miner.chainConfig.IsCancun(env.header.Number, env.header.Time)
-		gasLimit = env.header.GasLimit
-	)
-	if env.gasPool == nil {
-		env.gasPool = new(core.GasPool).AddGas(gasLimit)
-	}
+	isCancun := miner.chainConfig.IsCancun(env.header.Number, env.header.Time)
 	for {
 		// Check interruption signal and abort building if it's fired.
 		if interrupt != nil {
diff --git a/tests/state_test_util.go b/tests/state_test_util.go
index 7525081f84..3c7ee1c31d 100644
--- a/tests/state_test_util.go
+++ b/tests/state_test_util.go
@@ -342,9 +342,7 @@ func (t *StateTest) RunNoVerify(subtest StateSubtest, vmconfig vm.Config, snapsh
 	}
 	// Execute the message.
 	snapshot := st.StateDB.Snapshot()
-	gaspool := new(core.GasPool)
-	gaspool.AddGas(block.GasLimit())
-	vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, gaspool)
+	vmRet, err := core.ApplyMessage(evm, msg, core.NewGasPool(block.GasLimit()))
 	if err != nil {
 		st.StateDB.RevertToSnapshot(snapshot)
 		if tracer := evm.Config.Tracer; tracer != nil && tracer.OnTxEnd != nil {